These essays deal with historical aspects of Zen Buddhism and its teachers.


Legends in Ch'an: the Northern/Southern Split, Hui-neng and the Platform Sutra Was there ever a verse-writing competition between Hui-neng and Shen-Hsiu? This crucial story, related in the Platform Sutra, is at the heart of the Northern/Southern school split and established Hui-neng as the Sixth Patriarch. My essay looks at the historical record.

Maseo Abe: Zen and Buddhism. The great Kyoto School philosopher looks at Zen and asks the question: "Is Zen Buddhism?" from: Journal of Chinese Philosophy, V. 3.3 (June 1976) pp. 235-252

Wendy L. Adamek: Robes Purple and Gold: Transmission of the Robe in the Lidai fabio ji (Record of the Dharma-Jewel Through the Ages) Adamek, of Columbia University, admits that the Lidai fabio ji is a 'self-promoting fiction' but perhaps the text can be used to better understand the contradictions of the 'Southern School' ideology, reflecting "hidden issues involved in Chan polemics of the late eighth century." from History of Religions, 2000

Karen Andrews: A Survey of 12thC Japanese Buddhism Andrews outlines the chaos of this era and how the Buddhist movement developed and then changed towards the end of the century. (Institute of Buddhist Studies, Berkeley)

Martin Baumann: The Dharma Has Come West: a survey of recent studies and sources : The title pretty well tells it all. Here Baumann tries to “point out and discuss existing studies and sources which provide historical information of Buddhist developments in these Western, industrialized countries.” from Journal of Buddhist Ethics, Vol.4, 1997

Carl Bielefeldt and Lewis Lancaster: T'an Ching (Platform Scripture) Bielefeldt and Lancaster give an excellent overview of state of current (1975) translations and scholarship of the Platform Sutra. from Philosophy East and West Vol. 25, No. 2, 1975

Wing-Tsit Chan: Transformation of Buddhism in China Chan looks at the humanistic changes that Buddhism underwent in China: "The Chinese transformation of Buddhism has been a long and complicated process, but it can be summed up in one sentence, namely, "from an Indian religion of non-ego, it has become in China a humanistic religion." from Philosophy East & West, V. 7  No. 3/4 (October 1957 - January 1958) pp. 107-116

Chun-Fang Yu: Ta-hui Tsung-kao and Kung-an Ch'an A useful look at the biography of Ta-hui (Dahui) and his use of koans and hua-t'ou as a Zen practice. Chun-Fang gives quite a good, concise description of the role of koan practice in Zen. Easy reading. from Journal of Chinese Philosophy V. 6 (1979) pp. 211-235

Roger Corless: The Enduring Significance of T’an-luan Corless looks at the neglected Pure Land teacher T'an-luan and discusses how his use of Madhyamika and Yogacara philosophy makes him a great teacher not only in Pure Land, but also in Mahayana. An interesting exploration of T'an-luan philosophy. from Pacific World

Henry Cruise: Early Buddhism: some recent misconceptions Cruise looks at how early Buddhists thought about nirvana and causation and criticises some modern scholars about their understanding of these important concepts. An interesting, if a bit dense, article. from Philosophy East and West Volume 33, no.2, 1983

Heinrich Dumoulin: Early Chinese Zen Reexamined: This is a supplementary essay to Doumoulin's seminal work, Zen Buddhism: A History and gives an overview of the Tung-Huaung manuscripts of the early years of Bodhidharma and the beginnings of Zen in China which Dumoulin didn't include in the early editions of his book.

Faxian: Faxian (Fa-hsien) on Buddhist Kingdoms, ca. 400 translated by James LeggeThis is a very short excerpt that talks about some of the places Faxian (4th-5th C), one of the earliest Chinese to visit India, visited. from UCLA Center for East Asian Studies

Peter Gregory: The Sudden/Gradual Polarity: A Recurrent Theme In Chinese Thought Gregory summarizes the papers presented at on "The Sudden/Gradual Polarity: A Recurrent Theme in Chinese Thought" during the weekend of May 22-24, 1981. from Journal Of Chinese Philosophy Vol.9 1982 pp. 471-486

Victor Soren Hori: Zen Sand - Introduction This is the entire 97-page introduction to Hori's book. It deals with the use of koans and capping phrases in Rinzai practice. This is fabulous! Well worth reading if you're interested in koan study. Highly recommended. Victor Hori's personal account of translating Zen Sand is also of interest and was written before the book was published. My review of this book is here.

Linda Brown Holt: From India to China: Transformations in Buddhist Philosophy Holt examines how Buddhism transformed when it left India and entered China. The two diverse languages had a significant role in the transformation.

Scott Hurley: The Doctrinal Transformation of 20th Century Chinese Buddhism: Master Yinshun's interpretation of the tathagatagarbha doctrine Hurley looks at Master Yinshun's (b. 1906) understanding of the tathagataharbha and concludes that this doctrine is 'expedient means' teaching. Hurley gives a good explanation of the doctrine and contrasts it with Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika doctrine of emptiness. Well worth reading. from Contemporary Buddhism, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2004

Livia Knaul: Chuang-Tzu and the Chinese Ancestry of Ch'an Buddhism Knaul looks at the Chinese influences on Ch'an, such as Taosim an Confusionism. "In regarding the development of Ch'an Buddhism much emphasis has traditionally been placed on its Indian background. Of course, it has been recognized that the Indian sources passed through a process of translation and adaptation to the Chinese, but what exactly the native soil was in which the Buddhist seeds fell has not been analyzed all too clearly."

Whalen Lai Buddhism in China: a Historical Survey I think the title says it all.
Ch'an metaphors: Waves, water, mirror, lamp Lai looks at three key metaphors used in Zen and finds them in the La^nkaavataara Suutra, the Awakening of Faith and the Platform Sutra. Excellent essay for those wondering where some key metaphors began. Ma-Tsu Tao-I And The Unfolding Of Southern Zen: here Lai looks at the influence of Ma-tsu in Zen and the dynamics of mind-to-mind Zen as perfected by this great master.

Michael P Levine: Can the Concept of Enlightenment Evolve? "...examines whether all evolution of the concept of enlightenment is best seen as interpretive variation rather than as embodying real notional change...It is implausible to suppose that... enlightenment has not evolved". Levine also argues that as literal interpretations of the Bible are incorrect, likewise a similar interpretation of Buddhist scriptures. from Asian Philosophy, Vol 13, Nos.2/3, 2001 pp115-129

Charles Luk (Upasaka Lu K'uan): This is Luk's translation of the Hsin Hsin Ming - Have Faith in Your Mind, a gatha written by of Seng T'san, Third Chan Patriarch of China. For a full discussion on this important text, see this site . Includes translations by Prof. Dusan Pajin, Daisetsu Teitarõ Suzuki and Richard B. Clark

John Maraldo: Is There Historical Consciousness Within Chan? Much of Ch'an history was written for reasons other than historical accuracy. Maraldo looks at some interpretations of modern historians of Ch'an and believes we should "identify the interests of the contemporary historian before seeking a direct answer [about historicity] in the sources being studied." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 12/2-3

Charles Muller: East Asian Apocryphal Scriptures: Their Origin and Role in the Development of Sinitic Buddhism Muller looks at apocryphal texts and their role in the development of Chinese Buddhism.

John McRae: The Antecedents of Encounter Dialogue in Chinese Ch'an Buddhism McRae looks at where and how the dialogues between Zen master and student began. These dialogues often ended up being koans. Very interesting essay. See also book review: Seeing through Zen

Biswadeb Mukherjee: The Riddle of the First Buddhist Council - A Retrospection A highly academic article about "The historic nature of the Cullavagga XI account, specially the episode of chanting the dhamma and vinaya, [which] has been denied either because of the silence of the MPS about the chanting, or due to the internal contradictions supposed to be existing between the different episodes narrated in the Cullavagga XI. " from: Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal, No.7, pp.449~473(1994)

Eshin Nishimura: Practical  Principle Of Hakuin Zen Examined in the Text By His Disciple Tourei-Enji : the title says it all.

Gudo Nishijima: Japanese Buddhism and the Meiji Restoration: Nishijima discusses the effects of the Meiji Restoration on Japanese Buddhism. Includes Nishijima's introduction to Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika, which Nishijima claims is "identical to the theories of Dogen".

Kang-nam Oh: The Taoist Influence on Hua-yen Buddhism: A Case of the Sinicization of Buddhism in China . "The religio-philosophical system presented by the Hua-yen Buddhist school of China was characteristically "Chinese" in the sense that it was not merely extensions of Indian Buddhist ideas but the reinterpretations and restatements of Buddhist thought within distinctively Chinese modes of thought and expression.  Hua-yen, in this sense, was a "sinicized" Buddhism.
This paper examines the philosophical background of this "sinicization process." The paper argues that the Taoist philosophy was one, possibly the most important, influence on this process.  The paper tries to prove this by exploring specifically four major Hua-yen concepts derived from the Taoist tradition: hsuan (mystery), "returning to the source," t'i-yung (essence and function), and li-shih (noumenon and phenomenon)."

Mario Poceski: Attitudes Towards Canonicity and Religious Authority in Tang Chan Poceski explores the use of standard Buddhist scriptures in early Chan which enabled Chan to take a central role in Chinese Buddhism. Poceski refutes the standard interpretation of Chan as being "outside the scriptures". Very interesting essay.

Gary L. Ray: The Northern Ch'an School And Sudden Versus Gradual Enlightenment Debates In China And Tibet Ray trawls over the sudden/gradual debate and the famous debate in Tibet which resulted in Indian, as opposed to Chinese, Buddhism dominating. Institute of Buddhist Studies, Berkeley

Tansen Sen: In Search of Longevity and Good Karma: Chinese Diplomatic Missions to Middle India in the Seventh Century Sen looks at some important Tang Dynasty missions to India, including the famous Xuanzang (Hsuan Tseng) 19-year mission. from Journal of World History, Vol 12 No. 1

Robert H. Sharf: The Zen of Japanese Nationalism Sharf asks, "How was it that the West came to conceive of Zen in terms of a transcendent or "unmediated" personal experience? And why are Western[ers] so eager to embrace this distortion in the face of extensive historical and ethnographic evidence to the contrary?" A highly critical study of D. T. Suzuki and the transmission of Japanese Zen to the West. An important essay all Zen students should read. source: History of Religions
Related readings:
book review, Of Heretics and Martyrs in Meiji Japan: Buddhism and Its Persecution
Sharf: Sanbõkyõdan Zen and the Way of the New Religions
Sharf: Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited
Sharf: Sanbõkyõdan: Zen and the Way of the New Religions

Hu Shih: Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism in China Its History and MethodShih reveals how Ch'an developed from a simple Buddhist religion to an iconoclastic sect. He explains the role of Shen-hui in making Hui-neng the sixth patriarch and discusses why some Ch'an rhetoric seems "illogical" and unfathomable. Very interesting essay from early Ch'an studies which laid a strong foundation for scholars who followed. from Philosophy East and West, Vol.. 3, No. 1, January, 1953

Ishii Shūdō & Albert Welter look at the formation and history of Mumonkan (Wu-men kuan) koan collection. The Wu-men kuan (J. Mumonkan) The Formation, Propagation, and Characteristics of a Classic Zen Kōan Text is an excellent essay for those interested in the history of this text.

Ven. Sheng-yen: The Platform Saatra of the Sixth Patriarch translated by Yu Chun-fang from: Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal no.5 July 1992 Chung-Hwa Insitute of Buddhist Studies . Sheng-yen offers an analysis of this seminal text “synthesizing the key points”. This translation is a little patchy.
see also Philip Yampolsky's translation of the Tun-hung text of the Platform Sutra
see also Wong Mou-Lam's translation (1929), updated 1952 by Christmas Humphreys

Charles W Swain: The Emergence of Ch'an Buddhism: a revisionist perspective "The purpose of this essay is to examine the emergence of Ch'an Buddhism as a separate and distinct sect in China . The argument is NOT that the traditions concerning this emergence are unreliable, but rather that attention to the historical context of their compilation may help to explain some of the distinctive features of Ch'an as a sect of Chinese Buddhism. I will attempt to distinguish the Ch'an traditions from the emergence of Ch'an as a separtate sect of Chinese Buddhism. It may be that some features of the traditional history of the Ch'an sect are a reconstruction, after the fact, for apologetic purposes." A rather simplistic outline of Ch'an history. from: Chung- Hwa Buddhist Journal vol.2/Oct, 1988 P.391-399

Paul Swanson: Ch'an and Chih-Kkuan: T'ien-T'ai Chi-i's View of "Zen" and the Practice of the Lotus Sutra . Swanson gives a nice thumbnail sketch of Bodhidharma's contemporary, Chi-i's method of Buddhist practice which sought a balance between zazen and contemplation leading to realization. Why They Say Zen Is Not Buddhism: Recent Japanese Critiques of Buddha-Nature. This is Part One of a series of essays The What and Why of Critical Buddhism.

Albert Welter: The Disputed Place Of "A Special Transmission" Outside The Scriptures in Ch'an. “The purpose of the present investigation is to inquire into the origins of these slogans and the way they came to represent the Ch'an tradition of Bodhidharma, highlighting the disputed position of Ch'an as ’A special transmission outside the scriptures’ in Sung discourse.”
The Textual History of the Linji lu (Record of Linji): The Earliest Recorded Fragments "The story of the Linji lu is not the story of one man, Linji Yixuan. It is the story of a movement. The success of this movement contains the story of the success of Chan. In brief, my research on the Linji lu will not be set against the background of Linji the man and the style of Zen he represented, but will look at the Linji lu in light of the success of Chan." An interesting essay on a great master's legacy.

Dale S Wright: Emancipation from what? The concept of freedom in classical Ch'an Buddhism Wright "attempts to articulate an understanding of the goal of ‘freedom' in classical Ch'an Buddhism by setting concerns for 'liberation' in relation to the kinds of authority and regulated structure characteristic of Sung dynasty Ch'an monasteries" and "examines classical Ch'an rhetoric and practices in an effort to reconceive what ‘freedom' might have meant in this context and concludes with a proposal for this reconception." from Asian Philosophy, Vol 3 No.2 1993
Rethinking Transcendence: The Role of Language in Zen Experience Wright questions whether enlightenment "stands altogether beyond the shaping power of language and culture". He also looks at the role language played in the origins and development of the monsastic community, a community that made the Zen experience of awakening possible. Very interesting essay for those that see the Zen experience "not dependent on language and texts". Is that true? from Philosophy East and West, vol 42, no 1, January 1992
Historical Understanding: The Ch'an Buddhist Transmission Narratives and Modern Historiography Wright discusses the differences between classical Ch'an's interest in hisory and compares it with modern historical practices. Wright finds that early Ch'an historians considered themselves participants rather than merely recorders of their history. from History & Theory,Vol 31, Issue 1, pp.37-46, 1992
The Hunag-po Literature: Wright analyzes the two major collections of Huang-po's teachings from a historical, literary and philosophical perspectiave and summarizes the teachings. An excellent study! from The Zen Cannon (2004) OUP

Robert B.Zeuschner: The understanding of mind in the Northern line of Ch'an (Zen) Zeuschner explores how early Ch'an of the so-called ‘Northern School' understood the nature of “pure mind” and “defiled mind”. An interesting essay from: Philosophy East and West V. 28, No. 1,1978